civilization
a human society that has reached a high level of intellectual, social and cultural development.
Culture
a group of people with a shared tradition of values and common hopes for the future.
sedentary
tending to spend much time seated; somewhat inactive.
nomadic
In this question, nomadic is an adjective that means migratory. A nomad is someone who lives by traveling from place to place. Nomadic thus means anything that involves moving around a lot. Nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes follow the animals they hunt, carrying tents with them.
relief
Anything that projects from a background. 1. Sculp- ture in which figures are attached to a background and project from it to some degree. In low relief, also called bas-relief, the figures project minimally, as on a coin. In high relief, figures project substantially from the background, often by half their full depth or more. In sunken relief, outlines are carved into the surface and the figure is modeled within them, from the surface down. 2. In printmaking, techniques in which portions of a block meant to be printed are raised. See woodcut, linocut, wood engraving.
mosaic
The technique of creating a design or image by arranging bits of colored ceramic, stone, glass, or other suitable materials and fixing them into a bed of cement or plaster.
icon
In Byzantine and later Orthodox Christian art, a por- trait of a sacred person or an image of a sacred event.
canon
A rule or set of principles and standards that is followed so consistently is called a"canon", a canon of human proportions in this case.
Objective
having a position on the other or further side of something; facing something, especially something of the same type. diametrically different; of a contrary kind
Subjective
is the opposite of objective, which refers to things that are more clear-cut. That Earth has one moon is objective — it's a fact. Whether the moon is pretty or not is subjective — not everyone will agree. Facts are objective, but opinions are subjective.
art
the expression or application of human creative skill and imagination, typically in a visual form such as painting or sculpture, producing works to be appreciated primarily for their beauty or emotional power.
beauty
a combination of qualities, such as shape, color, or form, that pleases the aesthetic senses, especially the sight.
fertility figures
This tiny Venus of Willendorf is from approximately the same time as the Chauvet cave paintings. "Willendorf" is the place she was found and "Venus", a fairly contemporary term, refers to love, beauty and femininity. As mentioned in the book, her arms, feet and face have been subordinated, but the breasts, stomach and hips are enhanced, if not exaggerated. "Venus" was made during the ice ages in a nomadic culture. A culture at that time had to be able to acquire food, survive the elements and, most importantly, reproduce successfully or risk extinction. The figure's physical abundance and possible reference to idealized pregnancy can easily reflect the culture's efforts to survive. However, like the Chauvet paintings, the Venus of Willendorf served no direct physical function. At less than five inches tall, it isn't likely that she was very useful in killing animals and it's hard to imagine that the stone could have physically aided fertility.
nomadic Art
early nomadic cultures created artworks in the manner presented was not strictly for enjoyment, but to serve a purpose that they believed it would serve. If we look at the Venus of Willendorf (insert detailed description here) and draw conclusions from the lecture, it was most likely created to represent the desirable features of a woman at that time, which depicts a woman who is pregnant. Perhaps - at that time, births were harsh and babies rarely survived, so fertility (and successful fertility) were important because this increased the chances of the tribe perpetuating. Another work of art we could look at is Women and Cattle (again, insert detailed description here). Also consider, nomadic tribes did not have a developed form of writing, and language was learned through listening and watching. So, how do you record your history without writing? Through paintings, this is how most early nomadic tribes did during the dawn of man.
Egyptian Art
The principle message of Egyptian art is continuity (following the canon used in all their works) - a seamless span of time reaching back into history and forward into the future - thus, the style of Egyptian art remained almost unchanged for 3000 years, a characteristic that fueled the images they created. Demonstrated in this work, the overall appearance is geometric with strong horizontals across the feet, knees, forearms and shoulders as well as strong verticals in the legs, upper-arms and position of the torsos. This geometry is consistent and unchanging - perfectly planned for the eternal afterworld. The bodies are smooth, lifeless, and reference no physical weight with little anatomical detail to reference the physical world; the faces are expressionless with eyes staring into a distant horizon - the body is only serving as a vessel for the spirit.
Greek Art
The Greek style is considered "classical" and actively focused on the handling of the human figure. Reflecting their interest in the 'ideal' and 'enduring perfection,' they created precise forms of the body conforming to their notions of the individual's ideal mind. Contrary to the Egyptians, the moments of life were most important, not eternity. The major characteristics apparent here are: a.) contrapposto - weight to one hip, b.) arms moving away from the body, c.) the head is angled, d.) the physical body under the skin is apparent and actual, e.) nude, and f.) harmonious proportions of the body.
Buddhist art
Characteristics of early Buddhist art you can see in this sculpture are: a.) the robe on the organic figure molds discretely to the smooth, perfected surface of the body, b.) the Buddha forms the mudras (hand gesture) to indicate preaching, c.) emphasis on the stomach (or diaphragm) either in figure or gesture referencing meditative breathing, d.) high relief carving, e.) seated figure with crossed legs, and f.) simplified planes of the face to symbolize the idealism of the religion.
Executions of the Third of May, 1808, 1814-15 by Francisco de Goya ROMANTICISM
In this image, the man in the white shirt is the dominant figure (the point of emphasis), the depicted martyr; and thus, the main emphasis of the work. This is obvious in terms of light, color and line. By utilizing a neutral, earthy color scheme for the background - de Goya has made the scene virtually disappear into the background so that we focus on the highlighted action in the foreground. The use of bright white, yellow and red (particularly to depict a violent act) against a near black background creates a dramatic focal point capitalizing on the harsh light depicted in the lantern. De Goya has subordinated the background not only by his color choices but also in the lack of detail as seen in the hillside, the church/city and the figures as they recede away from the front of the picture plane. He further emphasizes the central figure by the use of line (both actual and implied) by the weapons held by the soldiers and the implied lines extruding from their bodies' motion through their weapons to the figures on the left.
Hellenistic
Literally "Greek-like" or "based in Greek cul- ture." Descriptive of the art produced in Greece and in regions under Greek rule or cultural influence from 323 B.C.E. until the rise of the Roman Empire in the final decades of the 1st century B.C.E. Hellenistic art followed three broad trends: a continuing classicism; a new style characterized by dramatic emotion and turbulence; and a closely observed realism. However, theideal here is that the struggle or fragility of life is perfectly realized in stone through this woman. The Greeks didn't hesitate to show this type of moment any more than that of the disc thrower. The celebration of life in all respects is where they sought perfection. Your book provides you with a Hellenistic image you've seenbefore in this course, the Laocoon Group (this title is differentfrom earlier in the semester, a normal occurrence in historicalediting) from the second century BCE. A detailed narrativeaccompanies it and, like the Old Woman... it is a clear exampleof the dynamic diversity and naturalism of the Hellenistic periodin Greek art.
contrapposto
A pose that suggests the potential for movement, and thus life, in a standing human figure. Developed by sculptors in ancient Greece, contrapposto places the figure's weight on one foot, setting off a series of adjustments to the hips and shoulders that produce a subtle S-curve.
sunken relief
Akhenaten and Nefertiti sit facing each other on cushioned thrones. Akhenaten tenderly holds one of their three daughters, who gestures toward her mother and sisters. Seated on Nefertiti's lap, the older daughter looks up at her mother as she points across to her father; the youngest daughter tries to get her mother's attention by caressing her cheek. Above, Akhenaten's god, Aten, the sun-disk, shines his life-giving rays upon them. The sculpture is an example of sunken relief. In this technique, the figures do not project upward from the surface. Instead, outlines are carved deep into the surface, and the figures are modeled within them, from the surface down.
Pre-Columbian
pre-Columbian". The prefix "pre" means "before" and Columbian refers to Christopher Columbus, soPre-Columbian refers to art in the Americas prior to contact with the Europeans in 1492.
Olmec
The Olmecs were a highly developed civilization of farmers who had a rich system of beliefs and traditions that fueled their art. Themes in Olmec artwork centered on three major elements of their culture; nature, shamanism and origin myths (beliefs about where they came from). Olmecs believed that they came from race in which the jaguar was the male divinity and a human was the female divinity. In many Olmec paintings are literal images of a jaguar mating with a female human in a missionary position as part of a ceremony. From this union, they were born from the Earth's womb, a cave.
Ukiyo - E
Much modern Japanese art (made within the last couple centuries) is characterized by style called"ukiyo-e." In the 1500's the government in Japan began making calendars with prints of scenes from daily life. Over time, the images became extremely popular with the working classes and the demand spawned the growth of a tradition. "Ukiyo-e" means "images of the floating world", or images that aremeant to reflect a constantly changing, beautiful and pleasurable, but fleeting, world. The woodcut process of printmaking was used to mass-produce images, a technique that continued to be popular well into the 1800's. In line with its mass-appeal, Ukiyo focused on the ordinary things of life. Appreciated for its bright colour and decorativeness, its images frequently depicted a narrative, and included animals, birds and landscapes, as well as people from the lower social classes, like courtesans, sumo wrestlers and Kibuki actors. Its impact on French painting was due to the unique characteristics of Ukiyo-e, including its exaggerated foreshortening, asymmetry of design, areas of flat (unshaded) colour, and imaginative cropping of figures.
symbolism of the wheel
The cycle of life, death and rebirth.
Islamic Art
What they came up with were two very powerful symbols; geometric patterning and calligraphy (the art of letterwriting). Amihrab, the focal point or "altar" of a mosque symbolically indicating the direction of Mecca, is pictured below, competed sometime in the 1300's. Covering its borders and interior are geometric patterns that repeat over and over with mathematical consistency. This seemingly infinitepatterning is symbolic of the Islamic infinite and eternal relationship to Allah. It is both a point of decoration and meditation that is often used side by side with calligraphy
Early Christian Art
The physical idealism, naturalism, and love of natural beauty of the Romans and Greeks didn't hold anything for Christians concerned with the spiritual and heavenly, something paralleled in the arts. Christianity is a form of monotheism, a religion where only one God is worshiped, and their God could not comfortably be represented in human terms. To be closer to the heavens, Christians denied the natural earth in many ways, in part because it was there that the original sin occurs. This, in part, largely influences the way much of their artwork appears for several hundred years. In 330 CE the Roman emperor Constantine moves the capital of the Roman empire from Rome to the town of Byzantium, where modern day Istanbul stands, and re-names it Constantinople. From here we see the growth of the Byzantine style in the arts, an extension of early Christian artwork.
Byzantine Period
In Byzantine art, there is less evidence of the individual. Rather than the physical ideal we saw previously, there is a spiritual ideal that has much of the drama and emotion of daily life removed. We can see here how Byzantine artists had moved away from the naturalism and realism of classical Greece and Rome toward a flattened, abstracted style. Like the artists of ancient Egypt, Byzantine artists strove to portray often complex religious doctrines and beliefs, not scenes from daily life. Their subject was not the impermanent earthly world of the flesh but the eternal and sacred world of the spirit. By de-emphasizing the roundness, the weight, the "hereness'' of human bodies in this world, they emphasize that what we are looking at is not in fact here, but there. The glittering gold background of the mosaics is typical, and it sets the figures in a Byzantine vision of heavenly splendor.
Romanesque
With the Romanesque style, builders set a stone barrel vault as a ceiling over the nave (the long central area), hiding the roof structure from view. The barrel vault unified the interior visually, providing a soaring, majestic climax to the rhythms announced by the arches below.bay groin vault13.10 Interior, Sainte-Foy, Conques, France. c. 1050-1120.11 and 12th century 1020-1150• Over laps slightly with Ottonian• 1020-1150 is the Romanesque we see lots of stone chruches that are very large ○ Movement away from flat wooden ceilings and a lot more semi circular arches are used ○ A lot more stone is used in building○ Advancement in door ways are made • Romanesque is simple a term things were Roman looking not that the Romans had a lot of influence
Gothic Period
The Gothic period begins around 1100 CE, and through a quickening of naturalism accelerates us into the Renaissance. Taking its essential elements from Romanesque art, Gothic art is highly ordered with extensive individual uniqueness among its parts. The major expression in the Gothic period is the cathedral, next to the Egyptian pyramids one of the most ambitious uses of stone in history
Renaissance Period
individualism showed individual people instead of groups secularism fewer church paintingsclassicism classic Roman and Greek influence Nature depicted the outdoors anatomy focused on defined and precise human anatomy linear perspective the appearance of things relative to one another as determined by their distance from the viewer realism artistic representation that aims for visual accuracy depth used light and shading to create this blue background created depthsymmetry balanced proportions
High Renaissance Period:
We come now to a period known as the High Renaissance—a brief but glorious time in the history of art. In barely twenty-five years, from shortly before 1500 to about 1525, some of the most celebrated works of Western art were produced. Many artists participated in this brilliant creative endeavor, but the outstanding figures among them were unquestionably Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo
chiaroscuro
transition of light and dark across thesurface to convey the illusion of form
Baroque Period
demonstrates development beyond the accomplishments of the Renaissance. Generally, the Baroque artist work with a flourish beyond Renaissance sensibilities; there is still strong interest in anatomy, light and the classics, but added to this is movement, variety, a stronger use of color and a sense of drama. Where Renaissance artists emphasized a single intellectual/spiritual moment to tell a story, the Baroque artist focused on the climactic moment in the story to do the same. We can view these Baroque characteristics in thefollowing painting by one of leaders in Baroque painting, Caravaggio.
Romanticism
Like many of the periods we've covered, the Romantic period (1800-1850) was a response to the formality of Neoclassicism before it. Artists were responding to a world situation that was accelerating with change. The term "Romantic" was used to define what had eluded definition before it; the spirit ofthe artist. Romantic artists and critics judged art by the sensibilities of the individuals creating it. "Artistic freedom" was considered as a right, a major concern during this period, which created a wide range of images that cannot fit under a "checklist" of visual characteristics. After reading aboutDelacroix's Liberty Leading the People (1830) in the text, compare the image to The Execution of Madrilenos on the 3rd of May, 1808 (1814) below, by Goya.
Impressionism
Impressionist artists were interested in painting quickly, responding to their immediate environment. Whether painting outdoors or indoors, they emphasized the way light effects the way wee see things, especially how the "local", or actual color of an object appears different to our eyes depending on the time of day and which season it is. They painted very "directly", building up a thick surface of pigment, not attempting to create the illusion of real depth in an image as we saw during earlier periods. Space and form were created using simple color theory of primaries and secondaries as we studied earlier inthe term.
Post-Impressionism
Impressionism depended on nature and the artist's record of it, concentrating on effects of light and color instead of symbolism and content. In developing new approaches to painting, two "schools" of Post (after) Impressionism (1875-1920) grew in a reaction to Impressionism, from a need to apply order, structure, and more symbolic meaning to their images. One group was made of those seeking logical approaches to painting and another the spiritual and emotional. Paul Cézanne and Georges Seurat were in the former group, Vincent Van Gogh and Paul Gaugin in the latter.
Neo-Babylonian
When the Babylonians again came to power in Mesopotamia, late in the 7th century B.C.E., they formed a kingdom now called Neo-Babylonian. These "new" Babylonians surely must be ranked among the great architects of the ancient world. They developed a true arch before the Romans did and were masters of decorative design for architecture.
Mughal
Like most Islamic groups from Central Asia, the Mughals were influenced by Persian culture. In India, Persian forms mingled with Indian elements to create a uniquely Indian form of Islamic art. The most beloved work of Mughal architecture is the Taj Mahal (see 13.18). In Chapters 13 and 18, we pointed out the Persian aspects of the monument: its iwan entryways, its central domed interior, and its crowning ornamental onion-shaped dome. (To review the form of an iwan, see 18.3.) Looking at the building again, you can see that it rests on a stone platform in the manner of Hindu temples. The open, domed pavilions that sit on the roof and cap the four minarets are chattri, a traditional embellishment of Indian palaces.
Edo Period Japan
But the great artistic event of the Edo period was the popularity of woodblock prints, a new form that made art available to everyone. A) a flattening of space and form B) cropped close-up views C) strong diagonal compositions and asymmetrical balance
Renaissance
The work is from the Renaissance Period, Italy. This time period is translated as "rebirth", marked by a revival in the interest of Greek and Roman periods and cultures. Major characteristics in art were developed during this time and evident in many works from the time period: chiaroscuro, linear and atmospheric perspective, the use of the triangle to determine implied space and often infer the holy trinity. Other characteristics are: a love of anatomy and the nude, a sense of stability and order through the use of intellect and emotion, and the notion of reflecting a single moment to define a story.
Venus of Willendorf,
This tiny Venus of Willendorf (the image is also in the book) is from approximately the same time as the Chauvet cave paintings. "Willendorf" is the place she was found and "Venus", a fairly contemporary term, refers to love, beauty and femininity. As mentioned in the book, her arms, feet and face have been subordinated, but the breasts, stomach and hips are enhanced, if not exaggerated. "Venus" was made during the ice ages in a nomadic culture. A culture at that time had to be able to acquire food, survive the elements and, most importantly, reproduce successfully or risk extinction. The figure's physical abundance and possible reference to idealized pregnancy can easily reflect the culture's efforts to survive. However, like the Chauvet paintings, the Venus of Willendorf served no direct physical function. At less than five inches tall, it isn't likely that she was very useful in killing animals and it's hard to imagine that the stone could have physically aided fertility
Seated Buddha (India)
Characteristics of early Buddhist art you can see in this sculpture are: a.) the robe on the organic figure molds discretely to the smooth, perfected surface of the body, b.) the Buddha forms the mudras (hand gesture) to indicate preaching, c.) emphasis on the stomach (or diaphragm) either in figure or gesture referencing meditative breathing, d.) high relief carving, e.) seated figure with crossed legs, and f.) simplified planes of the face to symbolize the idealism of the religion.
Crouching Figure of a Man/Jaguar (Olmec)
The Crouching Figure of a Man/Jaguar (1000 - 600 BCE) is one of the most direct references to the jaguar origin myths in Olmec culture. Made from the mineral serpentine, the stone has a deep green-blue shade to it. Like before, the mouth, nose, eyes, and paws are that of the jaguar. In this case, the proportions of the body, shape of the head and kneeling position are human. The transition between human and cat is clear, illustrating a significant part of the Olmec origin myth. Olmecs rarely showed the complete jaguar, focusing on the transformative stages instead. The design of "flaming" eyebrows (may be difficult to see) represent either supernatural power or a shedding of the skin as jaguar changes to human or visa versa.
Beauty Looking Back by Moronobu 1690 Ukiyo-E
The compositions in Ukiyo-E prints appear fairly simple, but are complex in their simplicity. In earlier forms the background was left plain and uncluttered. Below is Beauty Looking Back by Moronobu from the 1690's. Flat patterning of the clothes and simple, broad lines highlight the form against the tan colored paper. Because Ukiyo-E highlighted daily life, the clothing worn by its figures was usually current in regards to popular fashion.
The Great Sphinx
The overall look is geometric. There are strong horizontals across the feet, knees, forearms and shoulders, and verticals in the legs, upper-arms, and general position of the torso. This geometry is consistent, reliable and unchanging, perfectly suited to the eternal afterworld. The bodies themselves are smooth and lifeless, serving only vessels for the spirit of the dead, conveying no real sense of weight as they sit on their throne. There is very little anatomical detail because to define muscles and bone beneath the skin would suggest a physical, living body. This type of body would grow old and die, depicting, in a sense, a finite life that would certainly not aid eternal existence after death. For the same reason, the faces are expressionless with eyes looking into the distant eternal horizon, slightly above the eyes of a subordinated viewer. So, in regards to the finished image, it is clear that the lifeless, unchanging quality could enhance a successful existence in the eternal Egyptian afterworld.
Doryphoros (Spear Bearer) Polykleitos 2nd century CE
Then, with Doryphoros (Spear Bearer), made in the 5th century BCE, we have the "break" into a purely Greek style. The figure is shifting its weight onto one hip (called "contrapposto"), the arms are moving away from the body (he originally held a spear), the head is turned to one side, the surface of the body is clearly a skin wrapped on a breathing, pulsing being and the left foot is no longer forward.
Mihrab (from the 1300s)
Covering its borders and interior are geometric patterns that repeat over and over with mathematical consistency. This seemingly infinite patterning is symbolic of the Islamic infinite and eternal relationship to Allah. It is both a point of decoration and meditation that is often used side by side with calligraphy. Text from the Qur'an, the Islamic holy book, decorates the outer border and small rectangle inside the mihrab. Organic, flowing text of religious writings are turned into an art form to function similar to the patterning, but even more significant because of their literal meanining
Crowned Head of an Oni (Ife Kingdom)
The last example we'll look at is the Crowned Head of an Oni (11- 1400 CE) also from the Ife Kingdom. This time made of zinc and brass, the naturalism and form is being delicately balanced with subtle abstraction of patterning on the face. Like before, the decoration does not compromise the sense of physical mass of the head.
Justinian with Attendants
Like his queen empress Theodora, the image is in mosaic, and the figures are flat and iconic, facing out to the viewer. Justinian is holding has a halo and holds a loaf of bread, both symbolizing his union with Christ. Also, his twelve assistants/advisers represent the twelve apostles. None of them exhibit much naturalism to the point that their feet appear to float off the ground. The drape of their robes hangs straight down, visually subordinating the body underneath.
Stained Glass at Chartres Cathedral Gothic
Stained glass windows are another primary form of expression in this period. Small pieces of colored glass are place next to each other and joined with strips of grooved lead, like a semi-transparent mosaic. The symbolism of stained glass windows takes it well beyond being purely decorative. In the Chartres cathedral, there are more than 394 windows, all of them different except for decorative trim, most of which have hundreds of pieces, illustrating scenes and characters from the bible. As a symbol then, God's light (sun) passes through God's stories (narratives/characters on glass), into God's house (cathedral), onto God's people (the faithful). Below is an example of a window from Chartres where, in keeping with the Gothic characteristics, patterned position of windows is made up of very different pieces/images.
Madonna Enthroned by Giotto 1280 Byzantine period
Madonna Enthroned by Cimabue (1280-1290). Notice the characteristics from the Byzantine period; all characters are facing out towards the viewer in a flat, iconic style. There is little of depth in the background, conveyed through overlap and a little linear perspective on the throne. The Madonna appears "cut-out" with no real sense of her anatomy under the clothing, which appears to drape straight down. Christ has no lap to sit on, and similar to his mother his body is flat and "pasted" against the surface of the painting.
The Virgin of the Rocksby Leonardo da Vinci
he Virgin of the Rocks by Leonardo (ca. 1495-1508) below is an ideal example of Renaissance artwork through which we can recognize the period's most consistent visual characteristics. The triangular composition represents the Holy Trinity (the father, son and holy spirit) as formed by Christ, St. Anne and Mary. A love of human anatomy and the use of chiaroscuro to convey it is usually evident, with forms emerging from shadows, into light and back again. Also, the mathematical certainty of linear perspective, especially when accented by atmospheric perspective is seen in many Renaissance paintings. Overall, there is a wonder of naturalism, stability and order through the use of intellect and emotion.
The Conversion of St.Paul by Caravaggio 1607 Baroque
Caravaggio's The Conversion of St. Paul (1607), from the New Testament story where Saul (later St. Paul), persecutor of Christians was converted into an apostle. Depicted is the story when Saul is knocked off his horse by the light of God and questioned as to his actions. Lying on his back with arms thrust towards the light, we witness the peak moment in the story. Where Renaissance artists were more idealized in their depiction of the subject, here we see what could potentially be a stable accident, with a young unshaven man having fallen off his horse that is then held in place by a peasant. This matter-of-fact handling of the characters, in such a religiously charged narrative (the models for which were often acquaintances of CCaravaggio's The Conversion of St. Paul (1607), from the New Testament story where Saul (later St. Paul), persecutor of Christians was converted into an apostle. Depicted is the story when Saul is knocked off his horse by the light of God and questioned as to his actions. Lying on his back with arms thrust towards the light, we witness the peak moment in the story. Where Renaissance artists were more idealized in their depiction of the subject, here we see what could potentially be a stable accident, with a young unshaven man having fallen off his horse that is then held in place by a peasant. This matter-of-fact handling of the characters, in such a religiously charged narrative (the models for which were often acquaintances of CCaravaggio's The Conversion of St. Paul (1607), from the New Testament story where Saul (later St. Paul), persecutor of Christians was converted into an apostle. Depicted is the story when Saul is knocked off his horse by the light of God and questioned as to his actions. Lying on his back with arms thrust towards the light, we witness the peak moment in the story. Where Renaissance artists were more idealized in their depiction of the subject, here we see what could potentially be a stable accident, with a young unshaven man having fallen off his horse that is then held in place by a peasant. This matter-of-fact handling of the characters, in such a religiously charged narrative (the models for which were often acquaintances of CCaravaggio's The Conversion of St. Paul (1607), from the New Testament story where Saul (later St. Paul), persecutor of Christians was converted into an apostle. Depicted is the story when Saul is knocked off his horse by the light of God and questioned as to his actions. Lying on his back with arms thrust towards the light, we witness the peak moment in the story. Where Renaissance artists were more idealized in their depiction of the subject, here we see what could potentially be a stable accident, with a young unshaven man having fallen off his horse that is then held in place by a peasant. This matter-of-fact handling of the characters, in such a religiously charged narrative (the models for which were often acquaintances of CCaravaggio's The Conversion of St. Paul (1607), from the New Testament story where Saul (later St. Paul), persecutor of Christians was converted into an apostle. Depicted is the story when Saul is knocked off his horse by the light of God and questioned as to his actions. Lying on his back with arms thrust towards the light, we witness the peak moment in the story. Where Renaissance artists were more idealized in their depiction of the subject, here we see what could potentially be a stable accident, with a young unshaven man having fallen off his horse that is then held in place by a peasant. This matter-of-fact handling of the characters, in such a religiously charged narrative (the models for which were often acquaintances of Caravaggio's from the street) shocked many of his contemporaries.
The Execution of the Madrilenos by Goya Romanticism
However, Goya's painting verges on the emerging Realist movement. The scene depicts the execution of the citizens of Madrid by French forces in 1808. Naturalistic handling of the body is subordinated for the stark shape one man whose arms are stretched out in a sacrificial pose, illuminated by a box light. Faces of soldiers are subordinated with their back to the viewers - all we see of them are guns aggressively pointing toward the innocents. Goya freely manipulated the image to suit his objectives without tying himself to a particular style or school of thought, powerfully emphasizing the idea of individual power versus anonymous authority.
Impression Sunrise by ClaudeMonet
In Impression Sunrise (1872) by Claude Monet (not Manet) below, we can see a classic example of Impressionist painting. Monet's brushwork is extremely visible — he's not trying to hide his marks by "smoothing out" the paint. The red sun glistening off the water isn't realistic, it's merely a dozen or so dabs of his brush with red paint. The color of factories around the port are distorted by the light and morning fog (atmospheric perspective), the sort of effect that intrigued Impressionist painters. These paintings are intended to be as much about light and color as much as the narrative or direct subject matter. In so far as a narrative or image was recognizable, they were of currentday settings because Impressionist painters wanted to reflect the world they lived in immediately and directly. Monet felt that our knowledge of what we see affects our vision, so he worked to capture the natural state of a subject by working very quickly.
The Swing by Fragonard, Roccoco
The image is delicately painted with a decorative sense of detail in the leaves and characters. Colors are light pastels that never get more than moderately intense, and the narrative is as much Rococo as the aesthetics. A young man sits in the bushes watching as a lady's skirt flies up in the air while she is swinging with the help of another man behind her. Now, he's got a perfect view right up her skirt! Is this a playful boyfriend and girlfriend or has the young man enlisted the help of the other gentleman to do something voyeuristic? Does the woman kicking off her shoe at the statue of Cupid (on the left) indicate playfulness? In any case, the mood is light - not deeply religious or dramatic, one of the prime traits of Rococo art.
Jacques Louis David's Oath of the Horatii (1784) Baroque
Jacques Louis David's Oath of the Horatii (1784) is an excellent example, both politically and aesthetically of this period. The image was commissioned by the crown with a group of pictures intended to improve public morality through the visual arts, touching on subjects of political loyalty and willingness to fight for what you believe. The image is designed much like DaVinci's Last Supper where narrative and aesthetics serves the idealized objective of the painting.In this story, the three Roman Horatii brothers are going off to battle against three other brothers in a neighboring city. Only one returns as the victor of the battle and upon seeing his sister saddened by the death of one of the enemies he had just defeated (she had been in love with him), murders her. The scene is set as the brothers prepare to leave and their father blesses them and their swords. As the essential moment of their departure, the single vanishing point for the entire image is located at the father's hand holding the swords. The brothers are idealized Roman soldiers, physically fit with hard shadows across their bodies and robes. Mother and daughter swoon with emotion at right, fulfilling, for the story, an idealized female role, as the maidservant hovers protectively over a child. Also note how the image is divided into thirds by the pillars in the background. This kind of idealized, calm, logical handling of the image is traditionally Neoclassical, communicating its objective, as in the Renaissance, beyond the narrative through its form and design.
Apoxyomenos (Scraper) by Lysippus
The Greek style is considered "classical" and actively focused on the handling of the human figure. Reflecting their interest in the 'ideal' and 'enduring perfection,' they created precise forms of the body conforming to their notions of the individual's ideal mind. Contrary to the Egyptians, the moments of life were most important, not eternity. The major characteristics apparent here are: a.) contrapposto - weight to one hip, b.) arms moving away from the body, c.) the head is angled, d.) the physical body under the skin is apparent and actual, e.) nude, and f.) harmonious proportions of the body
Menkaure and Khamerenebty, 2460 BCE
The principle message of Egyptian art is continuity (following the canon used in all their works) - a seamless span of time reaching back into history and forward into the future - thus, the style of Egyptian art remained almost unchanged for 3000 years, a characteristic that fueled the images they created.Demonstrated in this work, the overall appearance is geometric with strong horizontals across the feet, knees, forearms and shoulders as well as strong verticals in the legs, upper-arms and position of the torsos. This geometry is consistent and unchanging - perfectly planned for the eternal afterworld. The bodies are smooth, lifeless, and reference no physical weight with little anatomical detail to reference the physical world; the faces are expressionless with eyes staring into a distant horizon - the body is only serving as a vessel for the spirit.
Riverside Bamboo Market, Kyobashi, by Ando Hiroshige
The style of Japanese printmaking this painting is a good example of is the style of "ukiyo-e" - prints perfectly depicting a world that is common and fleeting. These depict independent landscapes, emphasize the physicality of the water, and flatten the figure. Some examples of the visual elements and principles of design evident here are: a.) linear perspective, b.) excellent and varied use of line, c.) color, d.) overlapping, e.) cross-hatching, f.) texture, etc. *Be sure you can elaborate on a variety of these for the final.
Head of a King, from Ife, Yoruba, 13th century, brass, life-size
The Ife were known for a strong tradition of works in cast metals and ceramics. The representation here is fully naturalistic - a portrait to commemorate its' ruler. The work is meant to represent the physical body of the ruler, the outer physical reality that can be perceived by the senses. The features are pronounced, with slight abstractions and adornments that do not compromise the sense of physical mass of the head.
Page from a copy of the Qur'an, Ahmad al-Suhrawardi, Baghdad
Islamic art is religious art without the use of holy images - culminating in a symbolic, literal art based on abstraction. The two powerful symbols used are geometric patterning and calligraphy. The borders are covered with geometric patterns that repeat over and over with mathematical consistency - this infinite patterning is symbolic of the infinite relationship to Allah. The use of text, the words of the qur'an, literally become the artwork.
The Madonna of the Meadows, 1505, oil on panel by Raphael
The work is from the Renaissance Period, Italy. This time period is translated as "rebirth", marked by a revival in the interest of Greek and Roman periods and cultures. Major characteristics in art were developed during this time and evident in many works from the time period: chiaroscuro, linear and atmospheric perspective, the use of the triangle to determine implied space and often infer the holy trinity. Other characteristics are: a love of anatomy and the nude, a sense of stability and order through the use of intellect and emotion, and the notion of reflecting a single moment to define a story.
Judith Beheading Holofernes by Artemesia
This painting is from the Baroque Period, Italy. Major characteristics from the Baroque Period seen here are: artwork is full of emotion, energy and movement (sometimes exaggerated); vivid, saturated colors with greatcontrast; a strong sense of drama; and a significant contrast between light and dark - ie: the figure is dramatically lit while the background is plunged into darkness.
Aphrodite of Melos (also called Venus de Milo). c. 150 B.C.E. Marble, Hellenistic
Venus was the Roman equivalent of Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love, beauty, and fertility. Sculptors of the late Classical period had begun admitting female nudes into the public realm—though only as goddesses or mythological characters. This statue exemplifies the ideal of female beauty that resulted. Her twisting pose may be explained by the theory that her missing arms once held a shield propped up on her raised knee. She would have been admiring her own reflection in a mirror, her draperies slipping provocatively as she contemplated her beauty. Hellenistic sculpture developed in several stylistic directions.
English and French Fall in Battle, detail of the Bayeux Tapestry. c. 1073-88.
The Bayeux Tapestry is like a long picture book—20 inches high and 231 feet long—telling the story of the conquest of England by William of Normandy in 1066. The scene illustrated, one of seventy-two sep- arate episodes reading from left to right, shows a group of Anglo-Saxons, who fought on foot, making a stand on a hill against a Norman cavalry assault. Soldiers and horses tumble spectacularly, and casualties from both sides fill the lower border. Despite the charming naïveté of these images, how- ever, scholars have learned more about the events surrounding the Norman Conquest from the Bayeux Tapestry than they have from any of the literature of the time.
Sandro Botticelli. The Birth of Venus. c. 1480. Renaissance
Although Botticelli's unusual linear style and shallow modeling was an exception to Renaissance norms, it was highly appreciated by the Medici circle. Venus, for example, looks as though she might be modeled in high relief, but not fully rounded. The implied space is shallow, with the sea and receding shoreline serving almost as a flat backdrop, as in a theatrical production. Medici intimates would also have understood the subtle Neo-Platonic overtones of the scene. In Neo-Platonic thought, Venus was identified with both Eve and the Virgin Mary; her birth from the water was related to the bap- tism of Christ by John the Baptist. Botticelli's work displays the rarefied and learned side of Renaissance art. It was painted not for a large public but for a cultivated audience of initiates.
Leonardo da Vinci. Madonna and Child with Saint Anne. c. 1503-06
Leonardo has arranged his figures in a triangular grouping by having the Virgin Mary, a grown woman, sit rather improbably on the lap of her mother, Saint Anne. As so often with Leonardo, the composition is not meant to be realistic but, rather, to suggest theological meanings. The three figures form a single unit because they are a single lineage. Looking at the image, our gaze falls across the generations, from Saint Anne to her daugh- ter Mary to Mary's son Jesus. Jesus attempts to climb onto a lamb, a sym- bol of his future sacrifice. (The lamb was a sacrificial animal, and Jesus is thus referred to as the Lamb of God.) He exchanges a look with his mother, as though both know what his destiny holds. She tenderly holds him back, as if to say, "Yes, soon enough, but not yet." Leonardo destabilizes his trian- gular grouping by plunging the lower left corner into darkness, then restores the balance by placing a dark tree at the upper right, an allusion to the cross on which Jesus will die. In the background is an uninhabited, primal land- scape of rocks and water, suggesting perhaps the creation of the world and the beginning of time. The entire scene is bathed in the gentle light of sfu- mato (derived from the Italian for "smoke"), Leonardo's specialty, in which layer upon layer of translucent glazes produce a hazy atmosphere, softened contours, and velvet shadows.
Ishtar Gate (restored), from Babylon. c. 575 B.C.E. Glazed brick,
Its main thoroughfare was the Processional Way, at one end of which stood the Ishtar Gate (14.9), built about 575 B.C.E. and now restored in a German museum. The gate consists of thousands of glazed mud bricks, with two massive towers flanking a central arch. On ceremo- nial occasions, Nebuchadnezzar would sit under the arch in majesty to receive his subjects. The walls of the gate are embellished with more glazed ceramic animals, probably meant as spirit-guardians.
Minaret
to the four slender minarets poised at the out- side corners
Pagoda
a slender tower with multiple roof lines
The Taj Mahal
The Taj Mahal was built in the mid-17th century by the Muslim emperor of India, Shah Jahan, as a tomb for his beloved wife, Arjummand Banu. Although the Taj is nearly as large as Hagia Sophia and possessed of a dome rising some 30 feet higher, it seems comparatively fragile and weight- less. Nearly all its exterior lines reach upward, from the graceful pointed arches, to the pointed dome, to the four slender minarets poised at the out- side corners. The Taj Mahal, constructed entirely of pure white marble, appears almost as a shimmering mirage that has come to rest for a moment beside the peaceful reflecting pool.